Blind Olympic Athletes Show the Universal Nature Tune into any sports coverage on TV，and you will see many athletes proudly raise their arms and heads in victory，while a much larger number hang their shoulders and necks in defeat.Studies have revealed why-they are universal behaviours，performed by humans in response to success and failure.
   The discovery came from Jessica Tracy from the University of British Columbia and David Matsumoto from San Francisco State University，who wanted to see how people showed feelings of pride and shame.（1）

G

G

They tried to find a large group of people，and it was critically important that some of these subjects had never seen other people reacting to success or failure before.
   The answer was Athens，during the 2004 Olympic Games.Its sister competition-the Paralympics-included many athletes who were born blind.
   （2）

C

C

Working with a professional photographer，Tracy and Matsumoto compared the body language of 108 competitors，41 of whom had lost their sight，and 12 of whom were blind from birth.The photographer repeatedly took pictures of these athletes after their competitions，and the researchers carefully recorded the positions of their heads，arms and bodies.（3）

F

F

The winners tilted their heads up，smiled，lifted their arms and puffed out their chests，while shoulders bent forward and narrowed chests were the marks of losers.
   （4）

E

E

Men and women who have never seen other people behave in these ways still make exactly the same movements.And while it's possible that parents may have taught their blind children some of these actions，it's very unlikely that they could have taught them all-particularly the expansion or narrowing of the chest.
   These actions were also remarkably consistent between contestants from every part of the world.Tracy and Matsumoto argue that pride and shame deserve a place alongside other primary emotions like happiness，fear and surprise.（5）

A

A

A.They are inborn behaviours and are accompanied by their own distinct sets of actions.
B.In fact，the culture was found to have only a very small effect on their body language.
C.Therefore，they could not have witnessed how other people reacted to winning and losing.
D.The result suggested that the athletes were showing their pride based on careful observation.
E.The athletes' behaviours give strong evidence that they have had the actions naturally since birth.
F.Analyzing the data，they found that the sighted and sightless athletes behaved in almost exactly the same ways.
G.In particular，they wanted to know whether these expressions were culturally determined and learned through observation.